Ecological and Socio-Economic Implications of Free Grazing in Ethiopia: A Review
Abstract
Livestock production in the tropics (including Ethiopia) is mainly sustained on free grazing as a major feed source. It is a known fact that the practice of livestock grazing is important for the growth of green biomass and composition of plant communities on grazing-lands. Moreover, grazing has the beneficial impact on biodiversity as extensive grazing contributes to the aesthetic and leisure importance of pastures. The practice can also contribute to the production of healthy feed of high quality. Grazing by livestock can also be used as a tool to limit the expansion of weeds and shrubs in open landscapes, but in most cases cannot stop or reverse natural succession. The conservation and protection of pastures requires the careful selection of razing management and appropriate number of grazing animals. Grazing species differ in their preference of habitat and plant species, which can enable the effective use of mixed grazing systems with different animal species. Thus, for purposes of biodiversity conservation, grazing should be combined with other practices, such as mowing, cutting or burning. Improper use of pasture such as both overgrazing and under grazing creates a threat for its biodiversity. Thus, both abandonment and overly intensive management of pastured grassland are harmful for biodiversity and should be avoided. Optimum grazing can be a tool to maintain or enhance biodiversity of grazed areas. The question, of which method or combination of methods is most suitable and most feasible in a particular area, depends on local biological and socio-economic factors. Research findings suggest that existing agro-environment schemes based only on blanket stocking rates are too crude to increase plant diversity and that site conditions must also be taken into consideration. In Ethiopia, the increase in number of livestock coupled with increase in human population has resulted in shrinkage of grazing lands and animals are limited to graze on overgrazed communal lands, road side and aftermath grazing and limited supplementation of straw. Besides, soil erosion and deforestation has worsened the situation. In line with this, one of the contributing factors to poor soil fertility, land degradation and erosion is the free grazing of animals. Free grazing is common practice in Ethiopia except in areas where grazing lands are limited in size and where the farming system favors growth of perennial cash crops. Strategic research is required into methods of achieving compliance with environmental protection and sustainable agricultural practice in developing countries including Ethiopia. In order to increase outputs from livestock, conserve soil and moisture and reforest degraded and over grazed communal grazing lands, controlling animals from freely grazing can be taken as alternative option of the negative effect of free grazing. This paper reviews ecological and economic benefits of free grazing, the effect of over grazing on natural resources and techniques to reduce the negative effect free grazing in Ethiopia.References
Abril, A., Bucher, E.H. (1999).The Effects of Overgrazing on Soil Microbial Community and Fertility in the Chaco Dry Savannas of Argentina. Applied Soil Ecology. 12:2. 159-167.
Aiken, G.E. (1990). Plant and Animal Responses to a Complex Grass-Legume Mixture Under Different Grazing Intensities. Dissertation Abstracts International. 51:3. 1045.
Arianoutsou-Faraggitaki, M. (1985). Desertification by Overgrazing in Greece: The Case of Lesvos Island. Journal of Arid Environments. 9:3. 237-242.
BCMF (British Columbia, Ministry of Forests), (2002).Considering Tools for Remediation. Rangeland Health Brochure 4. British Columbia, Canada. 1-22.
Brizuela, M.A., Cid, M.S. (1993). Initial Signs of Overgrazing in a Heterogeneous Pasture Under Continuous Grazing by Sheep. Revista Argentina De Production Animal. 13:1. 61-70.
Bartoszuk, H., Dembek, W., Jezierski, T., Kaminski, J., Kupis, J., Liro A., Nawrocki, P., Sidor, T., Wasilewski, Z. (2001). Spasanie Podmoklych Lak W Dolinach Narwi I Biebrzy Jako Metoda Ochrony Ich Walorów Przyrodniczych. In Polish. Biblioteczka WiadomosciImuz, No. 98 (Pl).
Bohner, A. (2007). Phyto-diversity In the Intensive and Extensive used Valley Meadows. Biodiversitat in Osterreich, 28 Juni 2007, 29-36, Hohere Bundes lehr- Und Forschugsanstalt fur Landwirtschaft Raumberg-Gumpenstein, A-8952 Irdning.
Cowlishaw, S.J. (1969). The Carrying Capacity of Pastures. Journal of the British Grassland Society 24.207-214.
Couvreur, S., Hurtaud, C., Lopez, C., Delaby, L., Peyraud, J.L. (2006). The Linear Relationship between the Proportion of Fresh Grass in the Cow Diet, Milk Fatty Acid Composition, and Butter Properties. Journal of Dairy Science 89, 1956-1969.
CSA (Central Statistical Agency), (2015). Agricultural Sample Survey Livestock and Livestock Characteristics. Volume II. Central Statistic Authority, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Debayle, J. (2004). A Pastoral Sheep Farm in Provence Expected to Manage Biodiversity. Fourrages179, 447-449.
Dillon, P., Roche, J.R., Shalloo, L., Horan, B. (2005). Optimizing Financial Return from Grazing in Temperate Pastures. In: Utilisation of Grazed Grass in Temperate Animal Systems
Dolek, M., Geyer, A. (2002). Conserving Biodiversity on Calcareous Grasslands in the Franconian Jura by Grazing: A Comprehensive Approach. Biological Conservation 104(3), Pp: 351-360.
Dumont, B., Rook, A.J., Coran, Ch., Röver, K.-U.(2007). Effects of Livestock Breed and Grazing Intensity on Biodiversity and Production in Grazing Systems. 2. Diet Selection. Grass and Forage Science 62(2), 159-171.
Evans, R. (1977). Overgrazing and Soil Erosion on Hill Pastures with Particular Reference to the Peak District. Journal of the British Grassland Society 32.65-76.
Evans, R. (1996). Some Impacts of Overgrazing by Reindeer in Finnmark, Norway. Rangifer. 16:1. 3-19.
Enser, M., Hallett, K.G., Hewett, B., Fursey, G.A.J., Wood, O.J.D., Harrington, G. (1998). Fatty Acid Content and Composition of UK Beef and Lamb Muscle In Relation to Production System and Implications for Human Nutrition. Meat Science 49(3), 325-341.
Evans, R. (1997). Soil Erosion in the UK Initiated by Grazing Animals. A Need for a National Survey. Applied Geography 17(2), 127-141.
Fuls, E.R. (1992). Ecosystem Modification Created By Patch-Overgrazing in Semi-Arid Grassland. In: Journal of Arid Environments. 23:1. 59-69.
Fraser, M.D., Davies, D.A., Vale, J.E., Nute, G.R., Hallett, K.G., Richardson, R.J.,Wright, I.A. (2009). Performance and Meat Quality of Native and Continental Cross Steers Grazing Improved Upland Heineken T.(1990). Die Ackerwildkraut-Vegetation Auf Biologisch und Konventionell Bewirtschafteten Ackerflächen Bei Gut Adolphshof (Ldkrs. Hannover). Beiträge Zur Naturkunde Niedersachsens, Pp: 38-45.
Gutman, M., Kaplan, D., Gutman, R. (1997). Restoration and Conservation of Flora and Fauna in the Re-Flooded Hula Wetland in the Northern Israel, Life Third Countries Project No: Tcy/97/1l/038, Final Report 1997-2000, Www.Migal-Life.Co.Il
Hyder, D.N.-Bement, R.E.-Remmenga, E.E.-Hervey, D.F. (1975): Ecological Responses of Native Plants and Guidelines for Management of Shortgrass Range. United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Res. Service, Tech. Bulletin Number 1503, Us Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 87.
Hoffmann, M., (2002). Experience with Grazing in Flemish Nature Reserves (Northern Belgium).In: Grazing as a Conservation Management Tool in Peat land. Report of a Workshop held 22-26 April 2002 in Goniadz, Poland.
Hansen, B., Alrre, H.F., Kristensen, E.S. (2001). Approaches to Assess the Environmental impact of Organic Farming with Particular Regard to Denmark Agriculture. A Review. Ecosystems and Environment 83, 11-26.
Harris, R.A. (2002). Sustainability of Grazing and Mowing as Management Tools in Western Europe. Experiences in Scotland and the United Kingdom. In: Grazing As a Conservation Management Tool in Peat land. Report of a Workshop Held 22-26 April 2002 in Goniadz, Poland.
Illius, A.W., Gordon, I.J. (1993). Diet Selection in Mammalian Herbivores: Constraints and Tactics, In: Hughes R.N. (Ed.), Diet Selection: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Foraging Behavior, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, Pp. 157–181.
Jávor, A.-Molnár, Gy.-Kukovics, S. (1999). Juhtartás Összehangolása a Legelovel. (In: Nagy G.-Vinczeffy I. Eds.) Agroökológia – Gyep - Vidékfejlesztés.169-172.
Jiang, W.L.-Wa, Q.R.-Liu, G.Y. (1996). Study on the Effects of Improving Natural Grassland With Sheep Night Penning: 1. Sheep Night Time, Intensity and Herbage Mixture. Acta Pratacultural Sinica 5:17-25.
Jones, R.M.-Bunch, G.A. (1995). Yield and Population Dynamics of Chamaecrista Rotundifolia Cv. Wynn in Coastal South-Eastern Queensland as Affected By Stocking Rate and Rainfall. Tropical Grasslands. 29:2. 65-73.
Kátai, J. (1994). JavÃtóanyagok Hatása A Gyep Talajára. Dgyn 12.LegeltetésesÃllattartás, Debrecen. 229-247.
Kátai, J. (1998). Relationships between the Physical, Chemical and Microbiological Characteristics on a Grassland Experiment. Proc. of The 17thGeneral Meeting of The Egf, Debr., 77-81.
Kátai, J. (2003). A Talaj És A Gyep Különös Kölcsönhatása. Dgyn 18.Gyepgazdálkodás 2001.159-162.
Kasperczyk, M. (2008). Environmental Friendly Economy on Permanent Grassland. Prace I
MaterialyZootechniczne65, 27-33.
Kleijn, D., Brendse, F., Smit, R., Gilissen, N. (2001). Agri-Environment Schemes do not Effectively Protect Biodiversity in Dutch Agricultural Landscapes. Nature 413, 723-725.
Kohyani, P.T., Bossuyt, B., Bonte, D., Hoffmann, M. (2008). Importance of Grazing and Soil Acidity for Plant Community Composition and Trait Characterization in Coastal Dune Grasslands. Applied Vegetation Science 11(2), 179–186.
Lakew, D. and Belayneh, A.(2012).A Field Guide on Gully Prevention and Control. : “Prevention is better than Cureâ€. Nile Basin Initiative Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program (ENSAP).pp73.
Leader-Williams, N. (1988). Reindeer on South Georgia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Linghao, L., -Zuozhong, Ch.-Qibing, Q.-Xianhua, L. –Yonghong, L. –Li, L.H. –Chen, Z.Z.-Wang, O.B. –Liu, X.H. (1997). Changes in Soil Carbon Storage due to Over-Grazing in Leymus Chinensis Steppe in the Xilin River Basin of inner Mongolia. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 9:4. 486-490.
Longhi, F., –Pardini,A., -Tullio, V.G., -Di Tullio, V.G., -Eldridge, D., -Freudenberger, D. (1999). Biodiversity and Productivity Modifications in the Dhofar Rangelands (Southern Sultanate of Oman) due to Overgrazing. People and Rangelands: Building the Future. Proceedings of the vi International Rangeland Congress Queensland, Australia. 664-665.
Loucougaray, G., Bonis, A., Bouzillé, J.-B. (2004). Effects of Grazing by Horses and/ or Cattle on the Diversity of Coastal Grasslands in Western France. Biological Conservation 116(1), 59-71.
Martin, B., Fedele, V., Ferlay, A., Grolier, P., Rock, E., Gruffat, D., Chilliard, Y. (2004). Effects of Grass-Based Diets on the Content of Micronutrients and Fatty Acids in Bovine and Caprine Dairy Products (A. Lúscher, B. Jeangros, W. Kessler, O. Huguenin, M. Lobsiger, N. Millar, D. Suter, Eds.) In: Land Use Systems in Grassland Dominated Regions. Proceedings of the 20th General Meeting of The European Grassland Federation, Luzern, Switzerland. Grass land Science in Europe 9, 876-886.
Marty, J. (2006). Grazing Effects on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function In California Vernal Pool Grasslands. Cal-Pac Society for Range Management Symposium-Grazing For Biological Conservation. Conference Materials.
Mazurek, L. (2003).Wplyw Wypasubydla Oraz Presji Drapiezników Na Liczebnosc I Sukces Legowy Ptaków Wodnoblotnych Gniazdujacych Na Powierzchni Brzostowo†W 2003 R. Wwf, Bialystok.
Moles, R. (1992). Trampling Damage to Vegetation and Soil Cover with in the Burren National Park, Mullack Mar, Co. Clare. Irish Geography 25, 129-137.
Nowakowski, P., Dobicki, A., Aniolowski, K., Popiel, J., Mordak, R., Twardon, J. (2000). Pobranie Skladników Pokarmowych Przez Krowy Matki I Cieleta Z Naturalnego Pastwiska Górskiego. In Polish, Summary in English. Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii Rolniczej We Wroclawiu, Konferencje Xxiv, No 375, 179-185.
Olff, H., Ritchie, M.E. (1998). Effects of Herbivores on Grassland Plant Diversity. Trends in
Ecology & Evolution. 13(7), 261-265.
Oldemann, L.R., -Hakkeling, R.T.A., -Sombroek, W.C. (1991). World Map of the Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation: An Explanatory Note, 2nd Revised Edn. International Soil Reference and Information Centre, Nairobi/United Nations Environment Program, Wageningen.
PAI (Plant-Animal Interactions) (Colorado State University Cooperative Extension), (2004). Retrieved November 10, 2014 Http://Www.Coopext.Colostate.Edu/Sea/Tim/Plant-Animal.Htm
Paton, D.-Nunez, J. -Munoz, A.-Tovar, J. (1997). Analysis of Overgrazing in Mediterranean Grasslands Grazed By Retinto Cattle Using Bioindicator Plants. Archivos De Zootecnia. 46: 176.357-365.
Paulsamy, S., -Lakshmanachary, A.S., -Manian, S. (1987). Effects of Overgrazing on the Phytosociology of a Tropical Grassland Ecosystem. Indian Journal of Range Management 8:2. 103-107.
Pratt, D. (2002). Stop Overgrazing. Beef. Minneapolis. 38:12. 22.
Read, J.L. (2002). Experimental Trial of Australian Arid Zone Reptiles as Early Warning Indicators of Overgrazing By Cattle. Austral-Ecology.27: 1.55-66.
Pastushenko, V., Matthes, H.-D., Hein, T., Holzer, Z. (2000). Impact of Cattle Grazing on Meat Fatty Acid Composition In Relation To Human Nutrition. Proceedings of the 13th International Ifoam Scientific Conference, 293-296.
Peco, B., Sanchez, A.M., Azcarate, F.A. (2006). Abandonment in Grazing Systems: Consequences for Vegetation and Soil. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 113, 284-294.
Rook, A.J., Dumont, B., Isselstein, J., Osoro, K., Wallis, De Vries, M.F., Russell, J.R., Betteridge, K., Costal, D.A., Mackay, A.D. (2004). Cattle Treading Effects on Sediment Loos And Water Infiltration. Journal of Range Management 54, 184-190.
Smit, H.J., Metzger, M.J., Ewert, F. (2008). Spatial Distribution of Grassland Productivity and Land Use In Europe. Agricultural Systems 98, 208-219.
Soder, K.J., Rook, A.J., Sanderson, M.A., Goslee, S.C. (2007). Interaction of Plant Species Diversity on Grazing Behaviour and Performance of Livestock Grazing Temperate Region Pastures. Congrcs Beyond The Plant: Biodiversity Impacts on the Grazing Animal. Cssa Symposium (11/2005) 47(1), 416-425.
Sharma, K.D., -Walling, D.E., -Probst, J.L. (1997).Assessing the Impact of Overgrazing on Soil Erosion in Arid Regions at a Range of Spatial Scales. Human Impact on Erosion and Sedimentation. Proceedings of an International Symposium of the Fifth Scientific Assembly of the International Association of Hydrological Sci. (Iahs), Rabat, Morocco, 119-123.
Tolhurst, S., Oates, M. (2001).The Breed Profiles Handbook, English nature, Peterborough, UK.
Tallis, J.H.-Yalden, D.W. (1983). Peak District Moorland Restoration Project: Phase 2 Reports. Rp-Vegetation Trials. Peak Park Joint Planning Board, Bakewell.
Török, K., -West N.E.(1996). The Effect of Overgrazing on the Species Composition of Different Hungarian Grassland Communities. In: Rangelands ina Sustainable Biosphere. Proceedings of the Fifth International Rangeland Congress, Salt Lake City, USA. 565-566.
Villamil, M.B., -Amiotti, N.M., -Peinemann, N.(2001). Soil Degradation Related to Overgrazing in The Semi-Arid Southern Caldenal Area of Argentina. Soil-Science.166: 7.441-452.
Van Braeckel, A., Bokdam, J. (2002a). Grazing as a Conservation Management Tool in Peat land. In: Grazing as a Conservation Management Tool in Peat land. Report of a Workshop Held 22-26 April in Goniadz, Poland.
Van Braeckel, A., Bokdam, J. (2002b). Habitat Selection of Cattle and Horses in the lower Basin of the Biebrza National Park. In: Grazing as a Conservation Management Tool In Peat land. Report of a Workshop Held 22-26 April in Goniadz, Poland.
Van Oene, H., Van Deursen, E.J.M., Berendse, F. (1999). Plant-Herbivore Interactions and its Consequence for Succession in Wetland Ecosystems: A Modeling Approach. Ecosystems 2, 122-138.
Van Wieren, S.E., Bakker, J.P. (2008). The Impact of Browsing and Grazing Herbivores on Biodiversity. In: The Ecology of Browsing And Grazing, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 263-292.
Vavra, M. (2005). Biodiversity: Grazing Management. Encyclopedia of Animal Science. Wilson G. Pond, Allan W. Bell, P. 127.
Warda, M., Rogalski, M. (2004). Grazing Animals asan Element of Natural Landscape. Annales of University of Maria Curie Sklodowska, Sec. E, 59(4), 1985-1991.
Wasilewski, Z. (2002). Typological Characteristics of Grassland and Way of Use The Priority Plant Communities to Preserve their Natural Assets. In: Current Problems of Wetland Conservation. Natural Values of Wetlands and Their Agricultural Use. Water-Environment-Rural Areas. Dissertations and Monographs 4, 62-81. In Polish.
Wasilewski, Z. (2006). An Evaluation of Sward Quality in Grazed Grasslands of Various Habitats. Water-Environment-Rural Areas 6(1) (16), 413-421. In Polish.
Warren, A., -Khogali, M. (1992). Assessment of Desertification and Drought in the Sudano-Sahelion Region Iw-/99/. United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office.
Whitlow, R. (1988). Soil Erosion and Conservation Policy in Zimbabwe. Land Use and Policy 5. 419-433.
Wilson, A.D., Macload, N.D. (1991). Overgrazing: Present or Absent? Journal of Range Management. 44:5. 475-482.
Wood, J.D., Richardson, R.I., Nute, G.R., Fisher, A. V., Campo, M.M., Kasapidou, E., Sheard, P.R., Enser, M. (2003). Effects of Fatty Acids on Meat Quality: A Review. Meat Science 66, 21-32.
Zhang, Y.J., Jiang, W.L., Ren, J.Z. (2001). Effects of Sheep Night Penning on Soil Nitrogen and Plant Growth. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research. 44: 151-157.
Copyright (c) 2019 Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
