Aychilie et al. J. Agri. Environ. 8(1), 2023
Publication of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University 57
Research Article
Crossbred calf rearing method, pre-weaning morbidity and mortality in urban and peri-
urban dairy production systems of Dangila district, Ethiopia
Demelash Aychilie
1
, Asaminew Tassew
2, *
, Hailu Mazengia
2
and Workneh Wendimagegn
2
1
Amhara Region Livestock Development and Promotion Agency, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
2
College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University, P O Box 5501, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Corresponding author: asaminew2@gmail.com
Received: April 11, 2023; Received in revised form: May 01, 2023; Accepted: May 8, 2023
Abstract: The study was conducted to investigate the crossbred calf rearing method, pre-weaning morbidity and
mortality in urban and peri-urban dairy production systems of Dangila district, Ethiopia. A total of 160 households
were purposefully chosen from urban and peri-urban areas and interviewed using a pre-tested semi-structured
questionnaire. For the monitoring study, 20 peri-urban households were purposefully chosen from a pool of 100
peri-urban households, and similarly, 10 urban households were chosen purposefully from a pool of 60 urban
households. The findings revealed that the majority of dairy farmers in both urban and peri-urban dairy productions
used colostrum feeding. In the study area, the most common methods of calf milk feeding were restricted suckling
(49.4%) and bucket feeding (50.6%). Among the dairy farms monitored, 33.3% used separate houses, but during the
survey, it was discovered that 59.4% used separate calf houses. According to the monitoring study, 36.67% of farms
were found to have health problems in calves, which was similar to the survey result (41%). The major constraints
for crossbred calf rearing were feed shortage and high cost, disease and parasite, water shortage, and lack of
access to veterinary services. In this study, the overall incidences of crossbred calf morbidity and mortality rates
were 19.4% and 0%, respectively. Therefore, improved calf management practices such as colostrum and other
ration feeding, adequate housing, house hygiene, and proper waste disposal are strongly advised to prevent pre-
weaning crossbred calf morbidity.
Keywords: Colostrum feeding, crossbred calf rearing, peri-urban dairy, urban dairy
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1. Introduction
Ethiopia has the largest livestock in Africa, with 65
million cattle, 51 million goats, and 40 million sheep
(CSA, 2020). According to an IGAD (2010) estimate,
the livestock sector provides a living for 60-70% of
Ethiopians and accounts for 12-16% of the country‟s
total GDP and 47% of total agricultural GDP. Despite
having large number of cattle, dairy cattle perform
poorly in terms of milk production and reproduction
(CSA, 2020). On the other hand, the nation‟s
estimated annual per capita milk consumption is 19
liters, which is significantly less than Kenya‟s (115
liters) and Uganda‟s (65 liters) figures (TRAIDE
Ethiopia, 2021).
Among the production systems, the urban and peri-
urban dairy production system is becoming an
important supplier of milk products to urban centers
(Gebreyohanes et al., 2021). As a result, indigenous
cattle have very limited milking potential, which
makes it difficult to satisfy Ethiopia‟s growing
demand for milk and milk products (Abdisa and
Aychilie et al. J. Agri. Environ. 8(1), 2023
Publication of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University 58
Minda, 2016). In this sense, livestock intensification
and the crossbreeding program are intervention
measures to change the dairy industry (Shapiro et al.,
2017). Urban and peri-urban dairy production
systems with crossbred cows offer a lot of promise,
among other possibilities, to ease the severe shortage
of dairy products in Ethiopia‟s major urban centers
(Gebreyohanes et al., 2021). Therefore, the future of
such dairy farms depends on the calf crop‟s survival
rate. Lack of dairy replacement heifers is one of the
main obstacles to the growth of dairy production in
developing nations (Awol et al., 2016). According to
Mahder and Dinsefa (2016), proper calf care and
management, especially for replacement heifers, is
essential for the dairy industry to develop and thrive.
Several factors influence the health and vigor of
calves shortly after birth. Proper nutrition is critical
for calf growth and the overall profitability of the calf
rearing enterprise (Konjit et al., 2013). A good
nutritional strategy in young stock optimizes rumen
development and growth while minimizing stress and
disease. The living conditions of livestock have a
significant impact on their health and productivity
(Wudu et al., 2008; Konjit et al., 2013). The
cleanliness of the barn has an impact on calf health,
as calves housed in dirty barns are more likely to
contract diseases than calves housed in clean barns
(Wudu et al., 2008). The health of replacement calves
is an important factor in the overall profitability of a
dairy operation (Razzaque et al., 2009). Indeed, calf
morbidity and mortality result in significant
economic losses for dairy farmers (Mellado et al.,
2014; Tsegaw et al., 2020).
Despite the fact that many similar studies on calf
rearing methods, pre-weaning morbidity and
mortality in urban and peri-urban dairy production
systems in various areas of Ethiopia have been
conducted, Ethiopia is a large country with a huge
livestock potential, and most studies only target
specific areas rather than the entire country.
Furthermore, no previous research has been
conducted, and no published information has been
reported regarding crossbred calf rearing methods,
pre-weaning calf mortality, and morbidity from the
study area. Therefore, the objectives of this study
were imitated to determine the prevalence of pre-
weaning crossbred calf morbidity and mortality,
analyze the potential risk factors associated with pre-
weaning crossbred calf morbidity and mortality, and
evaluate crossbred calf rearing methods in Dangial
district, Ethiopia.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Description of the study areas
The study was carried out in the urban and peri-urban
areas of Dangila district, Amhara region, Ethiopia.
Dangila town‟s dairy farms were classified as urban
dairy farms. Dairy farms in the outskirts of Dangila
town, on the other hand, were classified as peri-urban
dairy farms. It is bordered with Faggeta Lekoma
district on the south, Guangua on the southwest, Jawi
on the northwest, and West Gojjam Zone on the
northeast. The district is situated in the north-western
highlands with altitudes ranging from 1850 to 2350
m.a.s.l. The climate is mid altitude (local
classification “Woina Dega”). The minimum and
maximum daily temperatures of the district are 25
0
c
and 30
°
C, respectively. Annual rainfall is 1600 mm,
with the main rainy season occurring June to
September (DZDOLD, 2016).
Dangila district has a total human population of
149,119 people, with 72,860 (48.86%) males and
76,259 (51.14%) females. Crop-livestock farming is
the main source of livelihood. According to
DZDOLD (2016), the district‟s livestock population
includes 147,981 cattle, 46,928 sheep, 23,3636 goats,
103,144 chicken, 268 horse, 1671 mule, 12783
donkey, and 11,637 bee colony. Cattle are the most
important livestock raised by the community in the
area. The predominant soil type in the area is reddish
brown, with a small fraction of reddish. Teff, millet,
wheat, barley, and maize are the major crops grown
in the area (DZDOLD, 2016).
Dangila town is one of the largest towns in Awi zone,
Amhara regional state. It is around 80 kilometers
from the regional seat of Bahir Dar and 485
kilometers from the country capital of Addis Ababa.
Dangila town has a total population of 49,389 people,
with 23982 men and 25,407 women. According to
the DTOA (2016), the town has 22,102 cattle, 5,193
sheep, 943 goats, 40,435 chicken, 34 horses, 664
mules, 1040 donkeys, and 1,627 honeybee colonies.
Aychilie et al. J. Agri. Environ. 8(1), 2023
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2.2. Sampling technique and sampling frame
The sampling frame consisted of households in the
study area that had at least one crossbred calf. The
study locations were chosen specifically for their
possible availability of crossbred dairy cattle,
accessibility, and market orientation of dairy
products. Five peri-urban kebeles were purposefully
chosen out of 10 milk shed kebeles based on
crossbred dairy cow potential and accessibility,
whereas Dangila town was chosen as an urban site.
The sampling frame was those households who have
a minimum of one crossbred calf in the study area.
The study sites were selected purposively based on
their potential for the availability of crossbred dairy
cattle, accessibility and market orientation of dairy
products. According to crossbred dairy cattle
potential and accessibility, 5 peri-urban kebeles were
selected purposively out of 10 milk shed kebeles
while Dangila town was selected as urban site.
The sample size of respondents was determined by
the formula provided by Yamane (1976) as indicated
below.
Where
n = sample size
N = population size
e
2
= error limit (the error of 5 percentage
points)
According to the above formula, 60 urban households
from Dangila town who have dairy cows with a
minimum of one crossbred dairy calf were selected
purposively. From peri-urban areas, 100 households
who have dairy cows with a minimum of one
crossbred dairy calf were selected purposively.
Monitoring study was conducted for six months. Out
of 60 urban households, 10 urban households from
Dangila town were selected purposively. Similarly,
out of 100 peri-urban households, 20 households
were selected purposively. The households were
selected from a list of dairy cattle owners registered
as members of the peri-urban and urban households.
2.3. Data sources and methods of data collection
The primary data were collected from households
with at least one crossbred calf. Secondary data were
collected from the appropriate district livestock
development office, kebele livestock development
agents, and documents that have been written about
the study area.
2.3.1. Survey
A semi-structured questionnaire was prepared and
pretested to ensure its appropriateness and clarity on
respondents. The pretested questionnaire was
administered to dairy farm owners. The questionnaire
was created to collect information on household
characteristics, dairy calf care practices (colostrum
feeding practices, watering, and housing and health
management), and pre-weaning calf morbidity and
mortality. Seven key informant interviews and six
focus group discussions were conducted to
substantiate and triangulate the information collected
from the formal survey.
2.3.2. Monitoring study
The sampling units consisted of 32 females and 23
males, totaling 55 crossbred dairy calves ranging in
age from birth to 6 months. They were monitored
daily for six months and recorded using a structured
recording format performed by an enumerator under
the supervision of the researcher. Calf management
practices such as the cleanliness of the calf enclosure,
feeding, watering, the prevalence of sickness, disease
signs, and death were documented in the format by
asking calf attendants during frequent inspections.
2.4. Data analysis
For data analysis, the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences software version 20 (SPSS 20) was used. In
the process of examining and describing calf rearing
practices, pre-weaning morbidity and mortality, and
calf management constraints in the study area,
descriptive statistical analysis was also used for
descriptive data, which included frequencies,
percentages, means, and standard errors. Logistic
regression was used to analyze whether risk factors
such as production system, sex and season (month)
have association with occurrence of morbidity.
The following model was used to analyze the
monitoring study.
Aychilie et al. J. Agri. Environ. 8(1), 2023
Publication of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University 60
Where,
Yijk = Response Variables (calf survival, pre-
weaning morbidity and mortality)
μ = Overall mean
Pj = Fixed effect of the production system
(urban and peri-urban)
Si = Fixed effect of the sex of calves
Mi = Fixed effect of season (dry and wet)
eijk = random error
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Socio-economic characteristics of the
respondents
The result revealed male-headed households
predominated in urban (93.3%) and peri-urban (97%)
dairy production systems, while female-headed
households predominated in urban (6.7%) and per-
urban (3%) dairy farms (Table 1). This finding was
consistent with what Yeshwas (2015) found in the
Bahir Dar milk shed, where male and female-headed
households were 90.2% and 9.8%, respectively.
Similarly, the findings agreed with those reported by
Azage et al. (2013) in Yirgalem town, where 88.5%
of households were headed by women and 12.5%
were headed by men.
The educational status of the household heads in the
study area was 15.6% illiterate, 35% read and write,
30% elementary education, 16.3% high school
completion, and the remaining 3.1% were
professionals (Table 1). The findings differed from
those of Yeshwas et al. (2014) in the Gozamin and
Bahir Dar Zuria districts, with the highest proportion
of illiterates (50.0%), read and write (23.6%),
primary (13.6%), and secondary school completed
(12.8%). The current study‟s high promotion of
respondents‟ educational enrollment allows it to
identify and determine the type of management
practices and extension service providers required for
better calf management in particular and improved
dairy farming in general.
Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics of respondents in the study areas
Variable
Category
Urban (N=60)
Peri-urban (N=100)
Overall (N=60)
N
%
N
%
N
%
Sex
Male
56
93.3
97
97
153
95.6
Female
4
6.7
3
3
7
4.4
Marital
status
Married
55
91.7
96
96
151
94.4
Widowed
2
3.3
3
3
5
3.1
Divorced
3
5.0
1
1
4
2.5
Education
Illiterate
3
5.0
22
22
25
15.6
Read and write
27
45.0
29
29
56
35.0
Elementary
10
16.7
38
38
48
30.0
High school
15
25.0
11
11
26
16.3
Diploma & above
5
8.3
0
0
5
3.1
N = number of respondents
According to the current study‟s findings, the age
groups 41 to 50 had the highest percentage of
respondents, while the age groups 20 to 30 had the
lowest percentage of respondents (Figure 1). The
average age of respondents in urban and peri-urban
dairy farms was 49.57 ± 11.775 and 45.21 ± 12.776,
respectively. According to Asaminew (2014), the
average ages of respondents in Holeta urban and peri-
urban districts were 44.93±2.82 and 43.73±2.82,
respectively.
The average family size per household in urban and
peri-urban areas was 5.82 ±1.927 and 5.90 ± 1.703,
respectively (Figure 2). The average household size
observed in this study was comparable to Melku
(2016), who reported an overall mean family size of
5.91±4.42 in West Gojam Zone. The average family
Aychilie et al. J. Agri. Environ. 8(1), 2023
Publication of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University 61
size in the study area was less than that reported in
the Bure district, which was 6.22 people (Adebabay,
2009), 6.1 in Shashemene, and 7.2 in Hawassa
(Azage et al., 2013).
Figure 1: Age of respondents in the study areas
Figure 2: Average family size of respondents in the study areas
3.2. Calf housing and handling conditions
The practice of calf pen location in the study area of
dairy farms calculated, 59.4% separate pen, 20%
cow shed, 7.5% with sheep and goats, 3.8% in
kitchen and 9.4% in household home (Table 2). In the
study areas, only 11.2% of the dairy farms used
bedding material in separate calf pen, whereas 88.8%
of the farms did not practice bedding of calf pen. At
the study sites, 61.7% and 69% of urban and peri-
urban dairy farms have better management of female
calves than male calves. The practice of calf pen
location in the study area was equivalent to the
finding of Yeshwas (2015), who found that only
29.9% of dairy producers in Bahir Dar milk shed
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
20-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 >60 Age of
respondents
urban peri-urban Overall
5.78
5.8
5.82
5.84
5.86
5.88
5.9
urban peri-urban Overall
Average family size
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supply separate calf pen. In Mekelle, calves were
housed separately from adult animals on 44.44% of
farms and in the same barn with cows on 55.56%
(Konjit et al., 2013). On 44.5% of the farms in Dessie
town and its environs, calves were housed separately
from adult animals (Awol et al., 2016). The use of
bedding material was comparable to what was
recorded at the Bahir Dar milk shed, with 7.73%
using bedding for their calf pen and 92.27% not
practicing calf pen bedding (Yeshwas, 2015). The
priority in management given to female calves was
consistent with the findings in Mekelle, with male
calves receiving less attention and management care
since their position in the farms was deemed
unprofitable (Konjit et al., 2013).
Table 2: Calf housing and handling conditions in the study areas
Variable
Category
Urban (N=60)
Peri urban (N=100)
Overall (160)
N
%
N
%
N
%
Location of the calf pen
Separate pen
41
68.3
54
54
95
59.4
With cows
19
31.7
13
13
32
20.0
With shoats
0
0
12
12
12
7.5
With family
0
0
21
21
21
13.1
If separate pen
Individual Pen
2
3.3
9
9
11
6.9
Group pen
39
65
46
46
85
53.1
Bedding of calf house
Present
15
25.0
3
3
18
11.2
Absent
45
75.0
97
97
142
88.8
Frequency to change
bedding
Once/day
15
25
2
2
17
10.6
Twice/day
0
0
1
1
1
0.6
Calves having better
management
Female
37
61.7
69
69
106
66.2
Male
0
0
0
0
0
0
Both
23
38.3
31
31
54
33.8
N = number of respondents
3.3. Manure disposal and calving care
All dairy producers in urban and peri-urban farms
used manual labor to dispose of manure, and none
used a drainage system (Table 3). The frequency with
which manure was disposed of varied across the
study area. The daily frequency of disposing manure
was 34% once, 54% twice, 10.6% three times, and
0.6% more than three times. During calving, no
farmers in urban or peri-urban areas used navel
treatment. The study area‟s use of family labor for
manure disposal differed from the findings of Asefa
and Ashenafi (2016) in Sodo town and its suburbs,
where 58.9% of urban producers paid extra money to
dispose of or transport animal dung out of town for
carter men (farmers around the periphery of towns to
fertilize their crops). Similarly, the majority of large
(80.2%) and medium (73.6%) sized farms in Sebeta
Awas district urban areas use hired labor to run their
dairy operations (Dereje et al., 2016). The current
study‟s findings were consistent with those reported
for Shashemene-Dilla milk shed, where family labor
was the dominant source of labor for urban and peri-
urban dairy production (Azage et al., 2013). The
findings were also consistent with the findings in
Bishoftu town, where the majority of management
activities in smallholder dairy farms were discovered
to be performed by family members (Mulissa et al.,
2011). The frequency of manure disposal was
consistent with the findings in Mekelle, where the
daily frequency of cleaning the calf house revealed
that 33.33% cleaned it once, 46.3% twice, 11.11%
three times, and 9.26% more than three times (Konjit
et al., 2013).
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Publication of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University 63
Table 3: Manure disposal and calving care in the study areas
Variable
Category
Urban (N=60)
Peri urban (N=100)
Overall (N=160)
N
(%)
N
(%)
N
(%)
Means of disposing manure
Drainage system
0
0
0
0
0
0
Manual labor
60
100.0
100
100
160
100.0
Frequency of disposing manure
Once per day
16
26.7
39
39
55
34.4
Twice per day
39
65.0
48
48
87
54.4
Thrice per day
5
8.3
12
12
17
10.6
>Thrice per day
1
1
1
0.6
Labor source for manure disposal
Family
60
100.0
100
100
160
100
Hired labor
0
0
0
0
0
0
Both
0
0
0
0
0
0
Navel treatment
Practiced
0
0
0
0
0
0
Not practiced
60
100
100
100
160
100
Type of navel treatment
Clinical chemicals
na
na
na
Local chemicals
na
na
na
N= Number of respondents, na = not applicable
3.4. Practice of colostrum feeding
The findings revealed that 93.3% and 88% of
respondents in urban and peri-urban dairy farms,
respectively, understand the importance of colostrum
feeding. However, the remaining 12% of respondents
were unaware of the benefits of early colostrum
feeding (Table 4). All the urban and peri-urban dairy
farmers in the study area feed colostrum to their
calves within six hours of birth. Suckling (49.4%)
and bucket feeding (50.6%) were the most common
methods of colostrum feeding. The knowledge of
feeding colostrum in the study area differed from that
reported by Yeshwas et al. (2014) in the Bahir Dar
milk shed, where 68.4% of respondents knew the
benefit of feeding colostrum to calves over ordinary
milk and fed colostrum within six hours of birth.
According to a study conducted in Dessie town and
its environs, only 46.3% of respondents understand
the significance of colostrum feeding (Awol et al.,
2016).
The timing of colostrum feeding post-partum in the
study area corresponded to what was reported in
Dessie town and its environs, where 78% of farm
owners practiced colostrum feeding of their calves
before 3 hours and 22% fed 3-6 hours post-delivery
(Awol et al., 2016). In contrast to this finding, a
report for selected districts in the West Gojam zone
found that approximately 68.3% of urban and peri-
urban dairy farms provide colostrum immediately
after calving (Melku, 2016).
The method of feeding colostrum in the study area
differed from that reported for Arsi Negelle and
Shashemene areas, where 88.7% and 11.3% of
respondents, respectively, used suckling and hand
feeding (Mahder and Dinsefa, 2016). In contrast to
the current findings, a report in the Sebeta Awas
district found that 91.6% of the overall interviewed
dairy cattle producers raised their calves through
bucket feeding, while only 8.3% raised their calves
through suckling (Dereje et al., 2016). Another
contradictory report from Gozamin and Bahir Dar
districts revealed that suckling (75.0%) and bucket
feeding (25.0%) were the most common methods of
milk feeding (Yeshwas et al., 2014).
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Table 4: Practice of colostrum feeding to calves in the study areas
Variable
Category
Urban (N=60)
Peri urban (N=100)
Overall (N=160)
N
(%)
N
(%)
N
(%)
Colostrum
feeding
Knowledge
Yes
56
93.3
86
86
142
88.8
No
4
6.7
14
14
18
11.2
Colostrum
feeding duration
3 days
34
56.7
58
58
92
57.5
4 days
9
15.0
28
28
37
23.1
5 days
17
28.3
14
14
31
19.4
Colostrum
feeding method
Suckling
22
36.7
57
57.0
79
49.4
Bucket feeding
38
63.3
43
43.0
81
50.6
Colostrum 1st
feeding
Immediately after
calving
60
100
100
100
160
100
6 h after calving
0
0
0
0
0
0
N = number of respondents
3.5. Milking and milk feeding of calves
Suckling (40%) and bucket feeding (60%) were the
most common methods of milk feeding in urban
dairy farms. Similarly, suckling (55%) and bucket
feeding (45%) were the most common methods of
milk feeding in peri-urban dairy farms (Table 5). The
majority (81.7%) of urban dairy farmers began
milking after a week, 8.3% after two weeks, 5% after
three weeks, and 5% after a month. Similarly, the
majority (73%) of dairy farmers in peri-urban areas
began milking after a week, 5% after two weeks,
10% after three weeks, and 12% after a month. The
majority of dairy farmers (55%) milked their cows
twice per day, and 45 percent milked their cows three
times per day. The majority of peri-urban dairy
farmers (76%) milk twice per day, with 24% milking
three times per day. About 40% of dairy farmers fed
their calves 1-2 liters of milk per day, 58% fed 3-4
liters per day, and 2 percent fed more than 4 liters per
day.
The method of milk feeding in the study area differed
from that reported in the Arsi Negelle and
Shashemene areas, where 88.7% and 11.3% of
respondents, respectively, used suckling and hand
feeding (Mahder and Dinsefa 2016). In contrast to the
current findings, a report on the Sebeta Awas district
found that 91.6% of the overall interviewed dairy
cattle producers raised their calves through bucket
feeding, while only 8.3% raised their calves through
suckling (Dereje et al., 2016). Another contradictory
report from Gozamin and Bahir Dar districts revealed
that suckling (75.0%) and bucket feeding (25.0%)
were the most common methods of milk feeding
(Yeshwas et al., 2014). Contrary to what was
reported in urban and peri-urban dairy farms in West
Gojam Zone, cows were not milked for about two
weeks during which calves were kept with and
allowed to suckle their dams freely in the current
study (Melku, 2016).
The amount of milk fed to calves on a daily basis in
the study area differed from the findings reported in
the Sebeta Awas district, where approximately 74.3%
of dairy farmers fed their calves 3 - 4.5 liters of milk
per day, while 22.4% fed more than 4.5 liters per day
during the first months of calves‟ life. Small urban
(22.2%) and peri-urban (33.3%) farms provided less
milk (3 liters), possibly in search of high milk for the
market. Similarly, in the second month of calf life,
88.3% of dairy farmers provide 3 - 4.5 liters of milk
per day, while 8.3% the farmers fed more than 4.5
liters of milk, and 3.3% of them fed less than three
litters (Dereje et al., 2016).
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Table 5: Milking and milk feeding of calves in the study areas
Variable
Category
Urban (N=60)
Peri urban (N=100)
Overall (N=160)
N
(%)
N
(%)
N
(%)
Milk feeding method
Restricted suckling
24
40
55
55
79
49.4
Bucket feeding
36
60
45
45
81
50.6
Start of milking cows
following calving
Within a week
0
0
0
0
0
0
After a week
49
81.7
73
73
122
76.3
After 2 weeks
5
8.3
5
5
10
6.3
After 3 weeks
3
5.0
10
10
13
8.1
After a month
3
5.0
12
12
15
9.4
Frequency of milking
Twice/day
33
55.0
76
76.0
109
68.1
Thrice/day
27
45.0
24
24.0
51
31.9
N = number of respondents
3.6. Feed sources and feeding system of calves
The findings revealed that the age at which non-milk
feed was introduced varied across farms in the study
area. Among the respondents, 17.5% of the
households introduce non-milk feed after two weeks,
31.9% after three weeks, and 50% after a month
(Table 6). Straw, hay, crop residue (primarily millet
and „teff‟), concentrate mixtures (wheat bran and
noug cake), and other non-conventional feeds such as
local brewery by-products (‟atela‟ and „brinti‟)
mixed with concentrates were the major feed sources
in the study area.
The age to start solid feeding to calves in the current
study differed from those reported in the Aleta Chuko
district, where 21% began feeding the calf after two
weeks, 4 percent after three weeks, 56% after one
month, and 19% after two months (Kibru et al.,
2015). In contrast to the current findings, Dereje et
al. (2016) found that 20.1% of farms in the Sebeta
Awas district begin feeding at 7-15 days, 56.5% at
15-30 days, and 23.4% at >30 days of calf age. The
sources of feed in the current study were consistent
with the findings of Yeashwas (2015) in Bahir Dar
milk shed, where the majority (83.7%) of the farms
used roughage (crop residue, hay, grass) for their
calves, while the remaining 16.3% used both
concentrate and roughage. The current study was also
comparable with the findings of Awol et al. (2016) in
Dessie town and its environs, where 70% of farmers
used roughage (hay, grass) as non-milk feed for their
calves, while the remaining 30% used both
concentrate and roughage.
3.7. Water sources and watering practices
In the current study, the main sources of water were
rivers (4.4%), wells (56.9%), tap water (32.5%), and
springs (6.3%) (Table 7). The majority (86.7%) of
respondents on urban farms acquired water from taps,
while 13.3% obtained water from wells. In peri-urban
dairy farms, however, wells (83%), rivers (7%), pipe
water (5%), and springs (5%), is the primary sources
of water for dairy calves. Frequency of watering in
the study area was 57.5% twice a day, 38.7% three
times a day and 3.8% of the farms provided free
access (ad libitum) to their calve.
The sources of water in the current study differed
from what was reported for the Shashemene-Dilla
milk shed, where the peri-urban dairy farms used a
river (46%) followed by a well (29.8%) and pipe
water (24.2%) as the primary source of water,
whereas the majority (71.8%) of respondents in the
urban dairy farming system (Hawassa, Shashemene,
Yirgalem, Dilla) rely on pipe water and well. The
frequency of watering in the current study
contradicted the findings of Yeshwas (2015), who
found that 31.2% of respondents in the Bahir Dar
milk shed gave their calves‟ free access to water and
68.8% gave their calves‟ limited access to water. The
results differed significantly from those reported by
Azage et al. (2013) for the Shashemene-Dilla milk
shed, where around 36% of households in the urban
Aychilie et al. J. Agri. Environ. 8(1), 2023
Publication of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University 66
and peri-urban system water their calves once a day and 64% water twice a day.
Table 6: Feed sources and feeding system of calves in the study areas
Variable
Category
Urban (N=60)
Peri urban (N=100)
Overall (N=160)
N
%
N
%
N
%
Age of solid feed supply to calves
After 2 weeks
16
26.7
12
12.0
28
17.5
After 3 weeks
24
40.0
27
27.0
51
31.9
After a month
20
33.3
61
61.0
81
50.0
Feed sources
Crop residue
32
24.1
100
31.1
132
29.0
Hay
53
39.8
88
27.3
141
31.0
Concentrate
40
30.1
34
10.6
74
16.3
Green feed
8
6.0
100
31.1
108
23.7
Season of feed shortage
Rainy season
Dry season
60
100.0
100
100.0
160
100.0
Feed conservation experience
Yes
60
100.0
100
100.0
160
100.0
No
0
0
0
0
0
0
N = number of respondents
Table 7: Water sources and watering practices in the study areas
Variable
Category
Urban (N=60)
Peri urban (N=100)
Overall (N=160)
N
%
N
%
N
%
Source of water
River
0
0
7
7.0
7
4.4
Well
8
13.3
83
83.0
91
56.9
Tap water
52
86.7
5.0
52
32.5
Spring
0
0
10
5.0
10
6.3
Frequency of watering
Once a day
0
0
0
0
0
0
Twice a day
43
71.7
49
49.0
92
57.5
Thrice
15
25.0
47
47.0
62
38.7
Ad libitum
2
3.3
4
4.0
6
3.8
Water related problem
Scarcity
2
3.3
30
30.0
32
20.0
Parasite
0
0
13
13.0
13
8.1
Impurity
8
13.3
36
36.0
44
27.5
No problem
50
84.0
21
21.0
71
44.4
N = number of respondents
3.8. Health management of calves
The majority (58.8%) of respondents in the research
area stated that health issues did not exist on their
farms. However, 41% of respondents stated that
calves‟ health was a serious issue in dairy farms
(Table 8). The majority of dairy farmers (78.1%)
were unaware of their calves‟ blood levels, while
only 21.9% were aware of their calves‟ blood levels.
In the farms studied, public clinics (41.3%), private
clinics (28.1%), and both public and private clinics
(30.6%) provided veterinary services. Access to
veterinary services was more difficult for peri-urban
dairy farms than for urban dairy farms, where both
public and private clinics were more accessible.
The health of the calves at the current farms
contradicted the findings of Konjit et al. (2013), who
discovered health concerns in calves in 66.67% of
semi-intensive and 66.67% of intensive farms in
Mekelle. The current study found that dairy
producers‟ understanding of calves‟ blood levels
differed from the findings reported in West Gojam
Aychilie et al. J. Agri. Environ. 8(1), 2023
Publication of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University 67
zone, where calves‟ blood levels ranged from 0 to
75% exotic blood level (Melku, 2016). The difficulty
in accessing veterinary clinics in the examined farms
was consistent with the findings of Tadele and Nibret
(2014), who found that 13.8% of dairy farms in and
around Maksegnit town experienced difficulty
accessing veterinary services.
Table 8: Health management of calves in the study areas
Variable
Category
Urban (N=60)
Peri urban (N=100)
Overall (N=160)
N
%
N
%
N
%
Presence of health problem
Yes
8
13.3
49
49
57
36
No
52
86.7
51
51
103
64
Knowledge of blood level of
calves
Yes
12
20
19
19
31
19.4
No
48
80
81
81
129
80.6
Use of traditional medicine
Yes
0
0
0
0
0
0
No
60
100
100
100
160
100
Use of veterinary service
Yes
60
100.0
100
100
1600
100
No
0
0
0
0
0
0
Source of vet service
Public clinics
28
46.7
28
28
56
35.0
Private clinics
9
15.0
41
41
50
31.3
Both
23
38.3
31
31
54
33.8
Problem to access vet. service
Yes
0
0
60
60
60
37.5
No
60
100.0
40
40
100
62.5
N = number of respondents
3.9. Weaning of calves
Among the overall interviewed dairy producers 1.3%
weaned their calves at 3 months of age, 8.8% at 4
months of age, 21.9 % at 5 months of age, 56.3% at 6
months of age and 11.9% more than 6 months of age
(Table 9). This study differed from the findings of
Dereje et al. (2016) in the Sebeta Awas district,
where 59.9% of dairy producers weaned their calves
at 3 months, 25.9% at 4 months, and 14.1% at more
than 4 months. Awol et al. (2016) reported that the
average weaning age of calves in Dessie town and its
environs was 5 months, with a range of 3-9 months.
According to Yeshwas (2015), the average weaning
age in most urban dairy farms of the Bahir Dar milk
shed was 6.8 months, whereas peri-urban dairy farms
had a slightly longer weaning age (8 months). In
contrast to the current study, another study found that
dairy farms in Mekelle wean their calves at varying
ages, with 7.4% weaning their calves at less than 3
months and 92.6% weaning after 3 months (Konjit et
al., 2013).
The result showed that the majority (75.6%) of
respondents weaned their calves on their own, while
the remaining 24.4% had their calves weaned by the
cow. The majority (63.2%) of respondents weaned
their calves when the cows became pregnant in order
to maintain the foetus and the cow, 17.3% used the
milk for sale or processing, and the remaining 19.5%
weaned the calves in order to manage the cow for the
next breeding.
Aychilie et al. J. Agri. Environ. 8(1), 2023
Publication of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University 68
Table 9: Weaning practice of calves in the study areas
Variable
Category
Urban (N=60)
Peri urban (N=100)
Overall (N=160)
N
%
N
%
N
%
Weaning age
Three months
0
0
2
3.3
2
1.2
Four months
3
5.0
7
11.7
10
1.2
Five months
15
25.0
15
25.0
30
18.8
Six months
36
60.0
55
91.7
91
56.9
>Six months
6
10.0
21
35.0
27
16.9
Who weans the calf
Cow
14
23.3
45
45.0
59
36.9
Owner
45
75.0
55
55.0
100
62.5
calf refusal
1
1.7
0
0
1
0.6
Reason for weaning by owner
For milk consumption
7
15.6
12
21.8
19
19
To maintain pregnancy
13
28.9
33
60.0
46
46
For the next breeding
25
55.6
10
18.2
35
35
N = number of respondents
3.10. Constraints of calf rearing system
The major constraints of calf rearing in the study area
were feed shortage (86.3%), feed cost (42.5%),
disease and parasites (25%), shortage of water
(24.4%), and lack of access to veterinary service
(22.5%) (Table 10). Most dairy cattle owners (100%)
identified feed shortage as the most significant
constraint in urban dairy farms, followed by feed
expense (42%), disease and parasites (12%), and
water deficit (4%). In the peri-urban areas, the most
significant constraint was again identified as a lack of
access to veterinary services (78%), followed by a
lack of water (35%), disease and parasites (28%), and
feed expense (26%).
Table 10: Constraints of calf rearing system in the study areas
Constraints
Urban (N=60)
Peri urban (N=100)
Overall (N=160)
N
%
N
%
N
%
Rank
Feed shortage
60
100.0
78
78
138
86.3
1
Feed cost
42
70.0
26
26
68
42.5
2
Disease and parasites
12
20.0
28
28
40
25.0
3
Lack of access to vet service
0
0
36
36
36
22.5
5
Shortage of water
4
6.7
35
35
39
24.4
4
N = number of respondents
3.11. Calf morbidity and mortality during the
monitoring period
According to the monitoring study, 36.67% of farms
were found to have health problems in calves, which
was similar to the survey result (41%). The
monitoring research found that the incidence of
morbidity and mortality was 19.4% and 0%,
respectively. The lack of mortality in this study could
be attributed to the small herd size of the smallholder
dairy farms, which allows farmers to easily monitor
calves, the increased attention and managed care
given to crossbred calves due to their economic
importance, and farmers also take measures to avoid
calf health problems. The findings of Debele et al.
(2021) demonstrated a significant frequency of calf
morbidity (50.12% cumulative incidence) on dairy
farms in Hawassa, Southern Ethiopia. Other
researchers‟ findings revealed an overall cumulative
incidence of 34.1% calf morbidity in North Shewa,
Amhara region, Ethiopia (Rahma et al., 2020).
Rahmeto et al. (2023) also found a high rate of calf
morbidity (40.29%) on urban and peri-urban dairy
farms in southern Ethiopia.
External parasitism was the leading cause of calf
morbidity during the follow-up period, with an
Aychilie et al. J. Agri. Environ. 8(1), 2023
Publication of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University 69
incidence rate of 6.1%, followed by calf diarrhea
(5%), calf pneumonia (1.7%), navel ill (1.7%), lumpy
skin disease (0.6%), alopecia (0.6%), and
dermastophilosis (0.6%) (Table 11). Among the risk
factors examined for study, the production system,
disease type, calf sex, and month (season) were found
to be substantially associated with calf health
problems (P<0.05). During the follow-up period,
there was a significant difference (P<0.05) in disease
incidence between disease types. Female crossbred
calves (11.7%) had a substantially higher incidence
rate (P<0.05) than male crossbred calves (5.6%).
The monitoring study showed that disease incidence
was higher in the dry season (5.6%) than in the wet
season (1.7%). The current study‟s morbidity and
mortality rates differed with the findings of Yeshwas
(2015), who found morbidity and mortality rates of
47.3% and 17.9% in the Bahir Dar milk shed,
respectively. In contrast to the current study, a survey
on Sodo town and its suburbs revealed 66.7%
morbidity and 20% death (Asefa and Ashenafi,
2016). The current study also contradicted the
findings of Yeshwas et al. (2014) in the Gozamin and
Bahir Dar Zuria districts, where pre-weaning
morbidity and death were 58.4% and 30.7%,
respectively.
The causes of disease in the study region differed
from those found by Yeshwas (2015) at the Bahir Dar
milk shed, where calf diarrhea was the primary cause
of calf morbidity with a 25.2% incidence rate,
followed by pneumonia (8.6%), septicemia disorders
(5.8%), and naval ill (5.8%). Similarly, the current
study contradicted with the findings of Awol et al.
(2016) in Dessie town and its environs, where calf
diarrhea (44%) was the leading cause of calf loss,
followed by pneumonia (28%). In contrast to the
current study, Yeshwas et al. (2022) reported that the
most common calf health problems on dairy farms in
Northwestern Ethiopia are diarrhea and pneumonia.
The disease risk factors identified in the studied dairy
farms differed from the study reported by Konjit et
al. (2013) in Mekelle where farming system, age at
first colostrum feeding, ventilation, and calf
treatment were significantly associated with calve
health problems. Yeshwas et al. (2022) reported that
calf age, vigor status at birth, calf breed, colostrum
ingestion, and herd size are predictors of calf
morbidity on Northwestern Ethiopian dairy farms.
Poor ventilation, poor barn cleanliness and bedding
management, humidity, dampness, overcrowding,
and a lack of regular cleaning and disinfection all
contribute to a high number of aerosolized
organisms, noxious gases, and other contaminants in
calf houses, leading to high calf morbidity (Wudu et
al. 2008). The significant difference in incidence
among identified disease types in the current study
was in agreement with Awol et al. (2016) in Dessie
town and its environs and Konjit et al. (2013) in
Mekelle. Other scholars‟ findings have also
supported the current findings (Rahma et al., 2020;
Tsegaw et al., 2020; Debele et al., 2021; Rahmeto et
al., 2023).
The current study found a difference in sickness
incidence between female and male calves, which
was consistent with a report by Asefa and Ashenafi
(2016) in Sodo town and its outskirts, where more
female calves were sick than male calves. In contrast
to this study, Konjit et al. (2013) in Mekelle revealed
that male calves (77.77%) had more health problems
than female calves (47.42%). In the current study,
more female calves were sick because there were
more female calves among the studied animals (58
%) than male calve. Another explanation for this
finding was that the majority of female calf owners
(70%) did not use a separate calf house, 60%
disposed of manure every two days, and 62%
practiced unsanitary bucket feeding of milk.
Similarly, the difference in disease occurrence
between dry and wet seasons in the current study was
consistent with the findings of Yeshwas et al. (2014)
in the Gozamin and Bahir Dar Zuria districts, where
season was one of the risk factors found to have a
significant effect on (P < 0.05) calf morbidity and
mortality.
Aychilie et al. J. Agri. Environ. 8(1), 2023
Publication of the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University 70
Table 11: The binary logistic regression of incidence rate of disease and parasite in the study areas
Risk variables
No of calves
Incidence No (%)
P-value
Production system
0.011
Peri-urban
34
15(9.4)
Urban
21
16(10.0)
Disease type
0.001
Calf diarrhea
9(5.0)
Calf pneumonia
3(1.7)
External parasite
12(6.1)
Navel ill (Omphalitis)
3(1.7)
Lumpy skin disease(LSD)
1(0.6)
Alopecia
1(0.6)
Dermatophilosis
1(0.6)
Sex
0.001
Female
32
19(11.7)
Male
23
9(5.6)
Month
0.040
February
9(5.6)
March
9(5.6)
April
4(2.2)
May
5(2.8)
June
3(1.7)
July
3(1.7)
4. Conclusion and Recommendation
The current findings revealed that the majority of
dairy farmers in both urban and peri-urban dairy
production systems understand the importance of
colostrum feeding and provide it to newborn calves
on time. However, crossbred calf morbidity rates
exceeded the economically tolerable level, and the
production system, disease type, calf sex, and season
are important determinants of crossbred calf
morbidity. External parasitism was the most common
cause of calf morbidity, followed by calf diarrhea,
internal parasitism, and calf pneumonia. The main
constraints in raising crossbred calves were lack of
feed and high cost, disease and parasites, water
shortage, and lack of access to veterinary services.
Therefore, to prevent pre-weaning crossbred calf
morbidity, improved calf management practices such
as colostrum and other ration feeding, adequate
housing, house hygiene, and proper waste disposal
are strongly advised.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the dairy farm
owners in the respective study areas for their
willingness and cooperation in participating in this
study and for providing valuable information during
the interview and follow-up study. Our heartfelt
thanks also go to the Dangila Zuria district and the
Dangila town administration Livestock Development
and Agriculture Offices for their assistance
throughout the data collection period.
Aychilie et al. J. Agri. Environ. 8(1), 2023
Journal of the College of Agriculture & Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University 71
Funding statement
This research did not receive any financial and
material supports from any organization.
Data availability statement
Data will be made available upon request.
Declaration of interest’s statement
The authors declare no competing interests.
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