Combined-Use of Soil Conservation Practices for Maximizing Crop Yields and

Household Income in Goncha District, Northwest Highlands of Ethiopia

Ermias Debie

Demsew Mengistie

Abstract

Soil and water losses and nutrient depletion are major limiting factors for crop growth and yield.

Smallholder farmers need to invest in combined-use of structural, vegetative, and agronomic

practices in an attempt to close the yield gap. This study aimed to evaluate the impacts of combined-

use of soil conservation practices in maximizing crop yield and household income in the sub-humid

highland of Ethiopia using farmer estimation techniques at the field level. Grain yield and household

income data were generated through conducting face-to-face interviews with 150 farm household

heads selected using a systematic random sampling technique. The data were analyzed using

independent t-test, and analysis of variance. The mean grain yields from fields treated with combined-

use soil conservation practices increased by 40.18% for tef and 50.37% for the wheat crop, and

significantly higher at f=69.8 and p<0.01 for tef, and f=35.3 and p<0.01 for wheat, compared to

fields treated with common traditional practices. The size of irrigated croplands (in ha), beehive

numbers and livestock sizes were positively and significantly (at p<0.01) associated with the increase

of households' income. The total size of farmlands and trees planted field (in ha) were also positively

and significantly (at p<0.05) related to the improvement of individual household income. Therefore,

efforts should be made to boost crop productivity through scaling-up of combined-use of vegetative

stabilized structure practices and compost under the legume-cereal crop farming system. There need

to be enhanced forage, livestock and tree production, and plantation of legume and flowering plants

on uncultivated privately owned plots for apiculture production

Keywords:

Combined-use, Conservation practice, Crop yields, Ethiopia highlands, household

income

_____________________________________________________________________

Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

2. Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

1. Introduction

The ability of sustainable agricultural production has been and continues to be a daunting

challenge for billions of small-scale farmers in the developing world (Pimentel, 2006; Hurni

et al., 2008). The livelihood of small-scale farmers directly depends on soil and water

resources where accelerated soil erosion continues (Pimentel, 2006). Accelerated soil erosion

causes the loss of soil, water, and nutrient, organic matter, biota and reduces soil depth. The

loss of soil in turn directly influences crop yields on the small-scale farmers’ fields. By the

year 2020, soil erosion could be a severe threat to crop yield in Africa, in particular where

crop yield gaps are among the largest in the world (Pretty, Toulmin & Williams, 2011;

Tittonell & Giller, 2013).

In Ethiopia, accelerated soil erosion by water accompanied by nutrient depletion has posed a

series threat to the reduction of potential crop yield, where crop/livestock production is the

major source of smallholder household income. Before reaching beyond a certain threshold

level of soil degradation, effective conservation practice has thus become quite indispensable

(Pretty, Toulmin & Williams, 2011). The Ministry of Agriculture of Ethiopia and the World

Food Program (WFP) have been investing considerable resources in encouraging and scaling

up of the soil conservation practices to enhance crop production and household income.

Findings of various studies indicated the ineffectiveness of introduced terracing practices on

cropland productivity. In the high rainfall areas of the Ethiopian highlands, different studies

found that the value of crop production for fields with structural practices was lower than for

fields without. For example, Menale et al. (2008) found that older Fanya-juu correlated with

a decline in average crop value of $19.00 (ETB 160), and new soil bunds resulted in a $21.00

(ETB171) decline. Bekele and Holden (2001) reported that gains from soil conservation

efforts did not improve as long as the cropping plot occupied by structures remains

underused. Zenebe et al. (2017) also discovered that the impacts of physical soil and water

conservation practices on crop yield were negative due to the reduction of croplands by

soil/stone bunds. The relative performance of introduced terracing in addressing the short-

term economic benefits of ecosystem services was more limited in potential and sub-humid

areas (Asnake, 2017).

Alternatively, numerous studies reported the positive effect of terracing practices on crop

yield enhancement in diverse agro-ecologies of Ethiopia highlands. For instance, some

experimental studies found that plots with structural practices were more productive than

those without structural practices in the semi-arid environment of Ethiopian highlands where

the availability of soil moisture is a principal limiting factor for crop yield (Hengsdijka et al.,

2005; Vancampenhou et al., 2006). The long-term maintenance of structural practices (e.g.

stone/soil and Fanya-juu bunds) is crucial to positive gains in the value of crop yield in the

sub-humid highlands of the country (Kato et al., 2009). In the highlands, crop production can

increase from 2% to 13% if a household continues to maintain structural practices from seven

to fifteen years (Schmidt & Fanaye, 2012). Getachew et al. (2011) reported that plots with

Fanya-juu and elephant grass (315.9gm

-2

) and Fanya-juu with vetiver grass (309.6g m

-2

)

produced a significantly higher yield than non-conserved plots (207.9g/m

). These

inconsistent findings on the effectiveness of introduced terracing on the improvement of crop

yields in the sub-humid environment of the Ethiopian highlands thus call for an investigation.

Moreover, practicing of terraces is economically more viable and effective in agriculture

when combined with agronomic and vegetative practices (Zenebe et al., 2017). The combined

use of nutrient saving (controlling of erosion and recycling of crop residues) and nutrient

adding through the application of compost or manure should promote sustainable cropland

productivity (Erkossa et al., 2018). Smallholder farmers need to invest in a combination of

structural, vegetative and agronomic measures in an attempt to close the yield gaps caused by

soil and water losses and nutrient depletion (Getachew et al., 2012). The combination of

terraces stabilized with vegetation and compost in the legume-cereal crop rotation system was

the most accepted system potentially leading to economic, social and ecological benefits

(Ermias, 2016). Despite these facts, studies are limited to the impacts of the combined-uses of

conservation practices in maximizing agricultural productivity in the sub-humid highlands of

Ethiopia. Therefore, the study aimed at assessing the impact of combined-use of soil and

water conservation practices on crop yields and household income using farmer estimation

techniques at the field level.

1.1 Description of the Study Area

The study was conducted on long wait terraced cultivated fields in three catchments

(Beriberi, Woyibila, and Wochitwuha) in Goncha district in the North-western highlands of

Ethiopia (Figure 1). In absolute location, the Beriberi catchment is located between

’

19.1

” _

’

46.2

”

N latitudes and 3803’4.3

”_

’

49.8

”

E longitudes. The Woyibila

catchment is located between 10

’

” _

’

51.23

”

N latitudes and 38

’

21.6

” _

’

31.1

”

E longitudes. The Wochitwuha catchment is found between 10

’

8.52

”

’

38.71

”

latitudes and 38

’

57.2

” _

’

19.7

”

E longitudes. The mean elevations in catchments are

2595.5 in Beriberi, 2677 in Woyibila, and 2471 m.a.s.l., in Wochitwuha. The climatic

condition is generally sub-humid. For instance, the mean annual rainfall distributions in the

catchments were estimated at 1313.4 mm in Beriberi, 1186.4 mm in Woyibila, and 1084.7

mm in Wochitwuha. Such estimations were done by interpolating a raster surface from the

average value of point data of monthly rainfall records from 1994 to 2013. More than three-

fourths of the total rainfall occurs during the summer season (from June to September). In all

catchments, crop-livestock mixed farming is the prominent livelihood activity. The soil color

that covers a large area of the selected study sites is reddish. Greyish brown color soils also

cover substantial areas of the Wochitwuha catchment (Hurni et al., 2016).

Figure-1: Location of catchments in the Woreda and Woreda location in the administration

map of Ethiopia

Under the mixed farming systems, the smallholder farmers predominantly grow tef

(Eragrostis tef) and wheat (Triticum vulgare). In addition, Niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica) in

Beriberi; maize (Zea mays), barley (Hordeum vulgare) and Niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica)

in Woyibila; and legume crops (horse beans (Vicia faba)), pea (Pisum sativum)), barley

(Hordeum vulgare), maize (Zea mays) and Niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica) in Wochitwuha

are produced. Conventional tilling through a hand press with an ox-pulling traditional

technique is the most common one to all farmers of tef, wheat and other crop productions.

Many times, contour ploughing (ranges from three to nine) is commonly undertaken from

mid-September to the end of July for seedbed preparation and sowing. Farmers in these areas

rear cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, and horses using cut-and-carry and open-grazing systems.

Crop residues and grasses are harvested from croplands and grazing areas, respectively. Open

grazing is typically practiced on free-access grazing lands. In addition to crop and livestock

productions, other income-generating farm activities like beekeeping, horticulture and tree

production are usually practiced in the highlands of Ethiopia in general and in the study areas

in particular.

In the cultivated fields, the commonly implemented conservation practices include stone

bunds, soil bunds, soil bunds stabilized with Sesbania sesban shrubs, Fanya-juu stabilized

with Sesbania sesban shrubs, Fanya-juu and composting. The common indigenous soil

conservation practices comprise legume-cereal crop rotation, contour ploughing, the

inclusion of some crop residues in the field and traditional drainage ditches. In the study

watershed, all cultivated fields are treated with one or a combination of more than two

practices (Ermias, 2016).

2. Methodology

2.1 Research Design

Yields obtained from experimental plots, perhaps misleading as they are often, overestimate

or underestimate attainable yields under the farmers’ conditions. Instead, farmers’ estimates

of harvested yields from their fields in a harvesting time recognize heterogeneous farming

systems and landscape of smallholder agriculture (Tittonell & Giller, 2013). Several

techniques of estimating harvested yields of farmers' plots are available. These include farmer

estimation, crop cutting, complete harvesting and others. The complete harvesting method

represents the entire farmer’s plot that would be harvested under project staff supervision.

Crop cutting represents direct physical measurement by the enumerator through taking a crop

from randomly selected sub-plots that may not represent the total area of the farm plot. For

this study, the surveying farmer estimation method is more appropriate as it is simpler, less

costly and permits greater sampling efficiency than complete harvesting and crop cutting.

Hence, a cross-sectional survey design was employed to generate grain yield data at a fixed

point of post-harvesting time, using farmer estimation method at the field level.

2.2. Sampling Design

The purposive identification of the study sites is mainly based on cropping patterns and the

status of soil conservation practices.

Table 1: Sample allocation mechanism

Catchments

Numbers of fields treated

with <3 years age terraces

Numbers of fields treated with

>7 years age terraces

Total

Tef cropped Wheat cropped Tef cropped Wheat cropped

Beriberi 38(3) 33(3) 117(11) 105(9) 293(26)

Woyibila 55(5) 47(4) 145(13) 132(12) 379(34)

Wochitwuha 140(13) 125(11) 381(34) 353(32) 999(90)

Total 233(21) 205(18) 643(58) 590(53) 1671(150)

Source: Kebeles’ land use and administration, and development agent offices

Note: Values out of and in parentheses represent population and sample sizes of fields'

owners, respectively.

From the selected catchments, farmers who grew tef and wheat crops in the cultivated fields

treated with terrace age below four years and above six years were the targets of the study.

However, farmers who cultivated fields treated with terrace age from four to six years were

not included in the sampling. This was because cultivated fields treated with terrace age

between four and six years were considered as an intermediate stage for land productivity for

this study. From the target study groups, out of 1671 farm household heads, 150 tef and

wheat growers at the time were selected (Table 1) using systematic random sampling. The

sampling was undertaken using a list obtained from the kebeles' land use and administration

offices. Every eleventh household head on the list was included in the sample.

2. 3 Method and Procedures of Data Collection

Face-to-face interviews were conducted with all the sampled farmers using pre-arranged and

structured questions. Farmers' perception of incentives or personal costs can cause a biased

response of under or over report grain yield. To reduce the response bias, respondents were

informed to recognize that their responses were mainly required for academic purposes only.

Generating accurate information about the change of income in the form of money is difficult

for the majority of farmers. Thus, memorable dichotomous terms like 'improved' and ‘not

improved’ (including ‘no change’ and ‘decreased’) were used for this study. Farmers were

asked to try to observe the changing status of their household income after the

implementation of the combined-use of conservation practices.

2. 4 Methods of data analysis

Variance of analysis was employed to analyze spatial variability in changes of harvested

grain yield of tef and wheat crops between cultivated fields treated with different soil

conservation practices. Moreover, independent samples T-test was employed to analyze the

association between perceived changes of income and other socioeconomic variables and

yield changes from specific tef and wheat fields in a particular catchment. Statistical Package

for Social Sciences Version 24 was used to analyze the quantitative data.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Impacts of Combined-Use of Conservation Practices on Tef and Wheat Yields

Table 2 reveals the significant impacts of different soil conservation practices in improving

wheat (Triticum durum) and tef (Eragrostis tef) yields. For instance, the mean grain yields in

fields with 7 and above years old terraces were 1326.2 kg ha

-1

tef and 1903.4 kg ha

-1

wheat.

The average yields in fields with three and below three years old terraces were 1034.9 kg ha

-1

tef and 1496.3k.g ha

-1

wheat. The results indicate that average grain yields were increased by

28.15 % for tef and by 27.21% for wheat in fields treated with more than 6 years old terraces.

In these fields, crop yields were significantly higher at f=22.54, p<0.01 when compared to

fields treated with three and below years old terraces. This suggests that terraces with

stabilized vegetation have significant effects on tef and wheat yields improvement. This

agrees with the findings of other studies conducted in the highlands of Ethiopia. For instance,

Eniyew, Teshome and Mat (2013) indicate that there was an average yield increment of tef by

94% in the 25 years old terraced fields when compared to the adjacent non-terraced fields.

Likewise, Schmidt and Fanaye (2012) indicated that crop yield improved from 2% to 13% in

fields conserved from 7 to 15 years old terraces. Moreover, Getachew et al. (2011) reported

that grain yield increased by 48.9% in croplands conserved with elephant and vetiver grasses’

stabilized Fanya-juu practice. According to Nigatu, Kalkidan, and Tewodros (2017),

vegetation-stabilized terraces improved crop yield by retaining soil moisture and controlling

soil loss.

Table 2: Crops yield difference due to terracing, composting, and legume-cereal crop rotation

and their combination on a specific cultivated field

Soil management practices

Tef yield Wheat yield

Mean(kg h

-1

) F Mean(kg h

-1

) F

Age of terracing on cultivated fields

Three and below years 1034.9 22.5

1496.3 10.5

Seven and above years 1326.2 1903.4

Type of fertilizers applied to the cultivated field in the past year

Inorganic alone 1065.2

15.7

1647.2

21.5

Combined-use of compost and inorganic 1232.7 1686.5

Compost alone 1428.5 2411.9

Type of crop grown on the cultivated field in the past year

Cereals 1140.7 34.2

1752.3 2.83

Legumes

1456.8

1995.2

Combined-use of seven and above years old terraces, compost and LCCR on a specific

cultivated field

Yes 1618.8 69.8

2544.4 35.3

1154.8

1692.1

Total 1248.8 1800.2

Note:

and

represent p<0.01and p<0.1 significant levels

Note: For this study, cultivated fields treated with terrace age between four and six years

were considered intermediate stage for land productivity and thus not included in the

sampling.

The type of fertilizers applied in the cultivated field in the past year influences wheat and tef

yields improvement in the next crop season (Table 2). For example, the mean yields from

fields treated with inorganic fertilizers in the past year were 1065.2 kg ha

-1

for

tef and 1647.2

kg ha

-1

for wheat. The average grain yields from the fields treated with a combination of

inorganic fertilizers and compost in the previous year were 1232.7 kg ha

-1

for tef and 1686.5

kg ha

-1

for wheat. The mean grain yields from field-amended by compost in the former year

were 1428.5 kg ha

-1

for tef and 2411.9 kg ha

-1

for wheat. Thus, the results showed that the

mean grain yields increased by 34.11% for tef and 46.42% for wheat in the fields treated with

compost in the past year as compared to fields treated with inorganic fertilizers alone in the

previous year. Moreover, the average grain yields from fields treated with combined-use of

compost and chemical fertilizers in the past year were higher by 15.72% for tef and 2.4% for

wheat when compared to fields treated with inorganic fertilizers only. The mean grain yields

significantly differed at f =15.7 and p<0.01 for tef, and at f =21.5 and p<0.01 for wheat

between fields formerly treated with organic fertilizers and fields treated with inorganic

fertilizers. This implies that the uses of compost followed by combined-use of inorganic

fertilizer and compost in the past year have significant contributions to tef and wheat grain

yields in the next year. The combined-use of compost and inorganic fertilizer can be an

alternative soil conservation practice for sustainable grain production rather than the sole

application of inorganic fertilizers (Getachew et al., 2012). The use of composted manure

increased crop yield and reduced the cost of inputs (Krauss et al., 2020).

The type of crop grown on the cultivated field in the past year could influence the

productivity of tef and wheat in the next crop season (Table 2). For instance, the mean grain

outputs were 1456.8 kg ha

-1

for tef and 1995.2 kg ha

-1

for wheat from field residual effect

after the legume crop grew, while 1140.7 kg ha

-1

for tef and 1752.3 kg ha

-1

for wheat from

field residue effect after the cereal crop grew. Hence, the results indicated that the mean tef

grain yield from fields with the residual effect of legume crop increased by 27.7% (at f=34.2,

P<0.01) when compared to fields cultivated with cereals in the past year. A large number of

farmers informally reported that compost use alone for growing legume crops is their

preference. Legume crop grown in the past year may contribute more to increasing tef crop

yield in the coming year than wheat yield. The stronger residual effects of legume crops

contributed to improved grain yield of cereal crops (Franke et al., 2018; Uzoh et al., 2019).

The interaction effects of the cereal-pulse-cereal rotation system significantly improved

biomass, grain, straw of wheat and tef (Teklu & Hailemariam, 2009).

In the fields conserved by combined-use conservation practices in the past year, the mean

grain yields were 1618.8 kg ha

-1

for

tef and 2544.4 kg ha

-1

for wheat. However, from fields

treated with single conservation practice in the past year, the mean grain yields were 1154.8

kg ha

-1

for tef and 1692.1 kg ha

-1

for wheat (Table 2). The results imply that the mean grain

yields from fields treated with combined-use of conservation practices increased by 40.18%

for tef and 50.37% for wheat. Furthermore, mean grain yields from fields conserved with

combined-use of conservation practices were significantly higher (at f=69.8, P<0.01) for tef

and (f=35.3, P<0.01) for wheat. This suggests that combined-use of vegetation-stabilized

terraces and compost in the legume-cereal crop rotation system greatly contributed to crop

yield improvement when compared to croplands that were conserved with a single soil

conservation practice. In agreement with this study, the highest mean effect on crop

productivity was obtained from the combination of bunds and biological intervention with a

170% increase (Wuletawu et al., 2019).

3.2 Farmers’ Perceptions of the Improvement of Household Income

Table 3 indicates that 14% of farmers participating in the study reported that their household

income had increased, while the majority (86%) responded that there was no change in their

income or their income decreased. The data in Table 3 further shows the association between

different socioeconomic factors and perceived improvement of household income. 0.28 ha

perceived that their income improved, while households with a mean area of irrigated

cropland of 0.025 ha perceived that their income did not improve. Farmers' perceptions of the

improvement of household income differed significantly at t=13.2, p<0.001 in terms of size

of irrigated cropland. In agreement with this, access to traditional irrigation for vegetables

and fruit productions contributed to increased household income (see Reddy et al., 2004;

Assan & Fikirte, 2013; Mehretie & Woldeamlak, 2013). Variability in rainfall patterns

presents a significant challenge to crop yield stability of rain-fed agriculture system;

highlighting the importance of irrigated croplands management for optimizing production

(Girvetz et al., 2019).

Similarly, households with an average number of four beehives perceived that their income

improved, but households with an average number of approximately one beehive perceived

that their income did not improve. The perceptions of these households were statistically

significantly different at t=11.8, p<0.001 (Table 3). Diversifying farming income through

bee-keeping activity more contributed to improving household income (Assan & Fikirte,

2013).

The average size of pasture and land covered with trees owned by households with improved

income was 0.07 ha, and it was 0.038 ha for households without improvement of income. The

perceived improvement of household income was statistically significantly varied at t = 2.14,

p< 0.05 in terms of sizes of pasture and area covered with trees in hectares per household

(Table 3). Farming income through tree plantation is more likely to contribute to improving

household income (Reddy et al., 2004; Assan & Fikirte, 2013). Planting trees on farmland

enables to provide fuel, wood, fodder, and fruits for self-consumption and increases income

(Mkomwa et al., 2017). Eucalyptus globules and Acacia mearnsii trees are usually planted on

croplands to cover the costs of fuel consumption, to obtain construction materials and to

supplement income. The trees are usually plated on the peripheries of a farmland and

alongside gullies and waterways. Croplands are sometimes converted into eucalyptus tree

production farms if the fields are near to a market and easily accessible to transportation.

When the cultivated field is unproductive for crop production, farmers often prefer to convert

it into a eucalyptus farm taking into account the high price of timber for construction

material. Many farmers plant a shrub locally named Gesho (Rhamnus prinoides) in

homestead farms for making traditional alcoholic drinks (Tella and Areki) to supplement their

income. Trees and shrubs (such as grass and herbaceous plants, Sesbania sesban shrubs)

planted in free space are used as fodder for cattle through cut-and-carry grazing system.

Table 3: The association between perceived changes of household income (improved [n=21]

and not improved [n=129]) and socioeconomic factors

Socioeconomic factors

Perceived changes of household income over

time (14% improved and 86 % not improved)

value

Improved (X) Not improved (X)

Irrigated croplands(ha) 0.28 0.025 13.2

Pasture & tree-planted fields(ha) 0.07 0.038 2.1

Total farmland size (ha) 2.24 1.76 2.5

Number of beehives 4 1 11.8

Total number of livestock 12 9 3.1

Number of productive labour

force

4 4 0.03

Tef & wheat mean grain yields

from conserved fields (in kg ha

-1

)

1461.8

1517.6

-.49

Note:

and

represent significance values at p<0.01 and p<0.05, respectively.

‘X’ represents the mean values of socioeconomic factors in terms of improved and not

improved responses.

Table 3 indicates that the average size of farmland was higher by 0.48 ha for households with

improved income when compared to households that did not perceive improved income.

Landholding size differed statistically significantly at t = 2.48, p<0.05 between households

with improved income and households without improved income. This implies that more

landholding size more likely contributes to the improvement of household income.

The mean number of livestock for household with improved income was 12, while it was 9

for households without improved income. The mean size of livestock differed statistically

significantly at t = 3.1, p<0.001 between households with improved income and households

without improved income. This depicts that more livestock size per household can improve

income through selling cattle. Livestock fattening for meat also improved household income

by selling fattened cattle (Assan & Fikirte, 2013; Tittonell, Gerard & Erenstein, 2015).

Farmers can also improve their income by selling milk and egg products from livestock.

Moreover, livestock can reduce labor costs by providing power for farming and land

preparation and transport (Tittonell, Gerard & Erenstein, 2015). Thus, there is a need to

promote improved feeding strategies and adaptation of more efficient breeds of livestock for

improving household income (Shikuku et al., 2017).

However, the size of productive labour force and crop yields improvement from conserved

fields of particular catchment did not correlate with perceived improvement of household

income. Similarly, the estimated tef and wheat yield improvement from conserved fields in a

particular catchment did not correlate to perceived household income improvement (Table 3).

This is due to the size of conserved fields with income diversification and intensification of

farming activities. Contrary to this, terraces can greatly contribute to increased household

income despite the types of crops grown (Eniyew, Teshome & Mat, 2013).

4. Conclusions

Smallholder farmers need to invest combined-use of structural, vegetative, and agronomic

practices in an attempt to close the yield gap caused by soils and water losses, and nutrient

depletion. This study aimed to assess the impact of the combined use of soil conservation

practices for maximizing crop yield and household income. The results of the study indicated

that long-term maintained terraces stabilized with vegetative measures had contributed

significantly to the improvement of tef and wheat yields when compared to fields conserved

with below four years of age terraces. Legume-cereals crop rotations (LCCR) and

composting also contributed to short-term (after one year) improvements of tef and wheat

grain yield. Moreover, the combined-use of long-term vegetative-stabilized terraces,

composting, and LCCR on a specific cultivated field had contributed largely to increase tef

and wheat yields compared to croplands treated with single practices. The estimated

improvement of tef and wheat grain yields from conserved fields is insignificantly associated

with perceived improving household income. However, the size of irrigated croplands,

beehives number, and livestock size were associated significantly with the perceived

increased households' income. Total sizes of farmlands and fields covered with trees were

also associated significantly with the improvement of household income. Therefore, efforts

should be made to boost crop productivity through scaling-up of combined-use of vegetative-

stabilized terraces and compost in the legume-cereals crop rotations systems. There is a need

to enhance forage, livestock, plantation of trees, plantation of legume and flowering plants on

uncultivated fields for apiculture production.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the cooperation of respondents and enumerators. The financial

support from the School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University is acknowledged.

References

Asnake Mekuriaw. (2017). Assessing the effectiveness of land resources management

practices on erosion and vegetative cover using GIS and remote sensing techniques in

Melaka Watershed, Ethiopia. Environmental Systems Research, 6, 16 (2017)

Ashley, C., & Hussein, K. (2000). Developing methodologies for livelihood impact

assessment: Experience of the African wildlife foundation in East Africa: Results of

research presented in preliminary form for discussion and critical comment, Working

Paper, 129.

Assan, J. K., & Fikirte Regassa. (2013). Livelihood impacts of environmental conservation

programs in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. Journal of Sustainable Development, 6(10),

87 - 105.

Bekele Shiferaw, & Holden, S. T. (2001). Farm-level benefits to investments for mitigating

land degradation: Empirical evidence from Ethiopia. Environment and Development

Economics, 6(3), 335–358.

Eniyew Adgo, Teshome Akalu, & Mat, B. (2013). Impacts of long-term soil and water

conservation on agricultural productivity: The case of Anjeni watershed, Ethiopia.

Agricultural Water Management, 117, 55– 61.

Ermias Debie. (2016). Integrated soil management approach and it's socio-ecological

implications in Goncha district, north-western highlands of Ethiopia (Doctoral

dissertation), Addis Ababa University.

Franke, A.C., Brand, G.J.V., Vanlauwec, B., & Giller, K.E. (2018). Sustainable

intensification through rotations with grain legumes in Sub-Saharan Africa: A review.

Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment, 261, 172-185.

Erkossa, T., Williams, T. O., & Laekemariam, F. (2018). Integrated soil, water, and

agronomic management effects on crop productivity and selected soil properties in

western Ethiopia. International soil and water conservation research, 6,305-316.

Getachew Agegnehu, Angaw Tsigie, & Agajie Tesfaye. (2012). Evaluation of crop residue

retention, compost, and inorganic fertilizer application on barley productivity and soil

chemical properties in the Central Ethiopian Highlands. Ethiopian Journal of

Agricultural Science, 22, 45-61.

Getachew Fisseha, Heluf Gebrekidan, Kibebew Kibret, Bobe Bedadi, & Birru Yitaferu.

(2011). Participatory development of soil conservation measures at the Debre-Mewi

watershed in the upper catchment of the Blue Nile Basin, Northwest Ethiopia.

Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences, 1(6), 199-213.

Girvetz, E., Ramirez-villeges, J., Claessens, L., Lamanna, C., Navarro-Racines, C., Nowak,

A., Thornton, P., & Rosenstock, T.S. (2019). Future climate projections in Africa:

where are we headed? Rosenstock, T.S., Nowak, A., and Girvetz, E. (eds.), The

Climate-smart Agriculture Papers Investigating the Business of a Productive, Resilient,

and Low Emission Future, Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland, Pp 15-27.

Hengsdijk, H., Meijerink, G.W., & Mosugu, M.E. (2005). Modeling the effect of three soil

and water conservation practices in Tigray, Ethiopia. Agriculture, Ecosystems and

Environment, 105, 29–40.

Hurni, H., Berhe Wolde-Arega, Chadhokar, P., Daniel. D., Gete Zeleke, Grunder, M., &

Kassaye Gosh. (2016). Soil and water conservation in Ethiopia: Guidelines for

development agents. Second revised edition. Bern, Switzerland: Centre for Development

and Environment (CDE), University of Bern Open Publishing (BOP). 134 Pp.

Hurni, H., Herweg, K., Portner, B., & Liniger, H. (2008). Soil Erosion and Conservation in

Global Agriculture. Braimoh, A. K., &Vlek, P.L.G. (Eds.), Land Use and Soil

Resources. Springer Science Business Media B.V. Pp, 41-69.

Kato, E., Ringler, C., Mahmud Yesuf, & Elizabeth Bryan. (2009). Soil and water

conservation technologies: A buffer against production risks in the efface of climate

Change/insight from the Nile basin in Ethiopia. International Food Policy Research

Institute (IFPRI) discussion paper, 00871.

Krauss, M., Berner, A., Perrochet, F., Frei, R., Niggli, U., & Mader, P. (2020). Enhanced soil

quality with reduced-tillage and solid manures in organic farming – a synthesis of 15

years. Scientific reports, 10, 4403(2020).

Mkomwa, S., Lugandu, S., Kuria, P., & Mutai, W. (2017). Empowering smallholder farmers

with profitable and sustainable farming using conservation agriculture: The case of East

Africa. In Kassam, A.H., Mkomwa, S., & Friedrich, T. (Ed.), Conservation Agriculture

for Africa Building Resilient Farming Systems in a Changing Climate. CAB international

2017. CABI Nosworthy Way, Wallingford, Oxfordshire OX10 8DE, UK, Pp, 41-70

Mehretie Belay, & Woldeamlak Bewket. (2013). Traditional irrigation and water

management practices in highland Ethiopia: Case Study in Dangila Woreda. Irrigation

and Drainage, 62, 435-448.

Menale Kassie, Holden, S., Köhlin, G., & Bluffstone, R. (2008). Economics of soil

conservation adoption in high-rainfall areas of the Ethiopian Highlands. Environment for

Development Discussion Paper Series, March 2008, EfD DP 08-09

Nigatu Dabi, Kalkidan Fikirie, & Tewodros Mulualem. (2017). Soil and water conservation

practices on productivity and its economic implications in Ethiopia: A review. Asian

Journal of Agricultural research, 11, 128-136.

Pimentel, D. (2006). Soil erosion: A food and environmental threat. Environment

Development and Sustainability, 8,119-137.

Pretty, J., Toulmin, C., & Williams, S. (2011). Sustainable intensification in African

agriculture. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 9 (1), 5-24.

Reddy, R.V., Reddy, G.M., Soussan, J., & Springate-Baginski, O. (2004). Participatory

watershed development in India: can it sustain rural livelihoods? Journal of

Development and Change, 35(2), 297-326.

Schmidt, E., & Fanaye Tadesse. (2012). Household and plot-level impact of sustainable land

and watershed management practices in the Blue Nile. ESSP Research Note 18

Shikuku, K.M., Valdivia, R.O., Paul, B. K., Mwngera, C., Winowiecki, L., Laderach, P.,

Herrero, M., & Silvestri, S. (2017). Prioritizing climate-smart livestock technologies in

rural Tanzania: A Minimum data approach. Agricultural Systems, 151, 204-216.

Teklu Erkossa, & Hailemariam Teklewold. (2009). Agronomic and economic efficiency of

manure and urea fertilizers use on Vertisols in Ethiopian Highlands. Agricultural

Sciences in China, 8(3), 352-360.

Tittonell, P., Gerard, B., & Erenstein, O. (2015). Trade-offs around crop residue biomass in

smallholder crop-livestock systems what's next? Agricultural Systems, 134,119-128.

Tittonell, P., & Giller K. E. (2013). When yield gaps are poverty traps: The paradigm of

ecological intensification in African smallholder agriculture, Field Crops Research, 143,

76–90.

Uzoh, I.M., Igwe, C.A., Okebalama, C.B., & Babalola, O.O. (2019). Legume-maize rotation

effect on maize productivity and soil fertility parameters under selected agronomic

practices in sandy loam soil. Scientific Reports, 9, 8539.

Vancampenhou, K., Nyssen, J., Desta, G., Deckers, J., Poesen, J., Mitiku Haile, &

Moeyersons J. (2006). Stone bunds for soil conservation in the Northern Ethiopian

Highlands: Impacts on soil fertility and crop yield. Soil and Tillage Research, 90, 1-15.

Wuletawu Abera, Lulseged Tamene, Degefie Tibebe, Zenebe Adimassu, Habtemariam

Kassa, habtamu Hailu, Kindu Mekonnen, Gizaw Desta, Sommer, R., & Verchot, L.

(2019). Characterizing and evaluating the impacts of national land restoration initiatives

on ecosystem services in Ethiopia. Land Degradation and Development, 31(1), 37-52.

Zenebe Adimassu, Langan, S., Johnston, R., Wolde Mekuria, & Tilahun Amede. (2017).

Impacts of soil and water conservation practices on crop yield, run-off, soil loss, and

nutrient loss in Ethiopia: Review and synthesis. Environnemental Management, 59, 87-

101.

Zenebe Adimassu, Mekonnen Kassa, Yirga Chekol, & Kessler, A. (2014). Effect of soil

bunds on runoff, soil and nutrient losses, and crop yield in the central highlands of

Ethiopia. Land Degradation and Development, 25, 554-564.